Participants in Construction Projects

Participants in Construction Projects A construction project is a task undertaken in the production of construction products. The term project in this context is being used for the total activity from inception to commissioning and occupation, involving an agreed and planned objective and total input of specialist participants and their interrelationships. It is a temporary non-recurrent activity that is started, implemented, evaluated and terminated. This activity is undertaken in response to demand (direct, derived, individual or collective) for construction activity. Moreover, the activity is complex and, hence, necessitates the input of large numbers of participants with different disciplines to carry out the separate but interrelated functions of design, engineering, costing, pricing, and production. The participants who are engaged to work on the project are mainly unaccustomed to working with each other and, hence, projects activity imposes a special demand on team building and motivation. In addition, every parti cipant should be made aware of all the governing conditions, objectives, responsibilities, relationship and basic parameters of the construction project. Construction projects vary considerably in size and complexity. Moreover, generally complex projects tend to be large amount of service element. This complexity poses major problems of bounded rationality, risks and uncertainty. Project Participants The participants to construction project procurement are the client (who is the initiator), the multi-disciplinary construction consultants (who act as the clients professional advisers) and the building contractor (who constructs the building). Together, this group of participants takes on and manages sequence of distinct but unrelated activities of the construction process from beginning to the end. A construction project, to all intents and purposes, is the production of capital goods and, like any other capital investment, involves careful planning and decision making. Construction projects generally are complex and composed of many activities. It is this complexity that calls for the input proposals of designers, contractors, suppliers and statutory authorities for their production. Although thee procurement method adopted may vary the relationship of the participants, there will always be a proposer (client), designer (architect/engineer), construction team (builder), statutory authorities (gas, electricity, fire and water) and area local authority. A. The Client The client is the key to the whole construction production process from inception to completion and at times to post-occupancy maintenance. Without the client there would be no construction project. Construction industry clients either identify user potential or create the need for the facilities and raise the necessary financial resources for their creation. They initiate the construction process by commissioning various construction professional to build to specific requirement. During the design and construction phases, the client directly or indirectly monitors progress, time, cost, and quality objectives and sanctions any necessary major variations to the design. Finally, on completion, it is the client who either disposes of the product at the marketplace or takes occupation and bears the repairs and maintenance cost of his/her investment. Therefore, the construction industry looks to many clients for work and, generally, these may be classified as public sector clients or clients from the private sector. A1. Public sector client These are public authorities whose operations are governed generally by Acts of Parliament. They act as agents for the central government who exercise control over their capital building programmes and expenditure. The key public sector clients for the UK construction industry are: Central government department, who are responsible for their own programme of construction on projects. Local authorities, who are responsible for the provision of housing, school, libraries, swimming pool, halls, sports centers and the like. Some health authorities, which are responsible for hospital buildings. Public corporations (e.g. British Rail and Air Transport boards), who are responsible for the provision of buildings and other construction products for their own use. A2. Private sector client These are private companies that build for leasing, renting, sale or own occupation. The central government only exercises a limited amount of control over their operations (e.g. planning controls for proposed development). The private sector clients for the construction industry are many and may be classified as follows: Multi-national companies (e.g. Ford, Cadburys. ICI and Esso) who construct factories, production plants, offices and distribution depots for their own use. National companies (e.g. Tesco, Sainsburys and Woolworths) who construct buildings for their own use in warehousing and retail. Local property development companies, who construct offices, factories, shops and houses speculatively for hire, lease or sale. Private clients, who construct new buildings, or extent, refurbish or repair the existing building for own occupation, letting, leasing or sale. B. Consultant office (The Design Team) All the developing design stage it is imperative that architectural design and details are well integrated with those of structural, mechanical and electrical engineers. The architect as the design team leader is responsible for design integration. And all the design team members are playing the important role during the design stage. B1.The Architect Traditionally, the design function in the construction process is the responsibility of an architect who is a professionally qualified person whose role is to interpret the clients project requirements into a specific design or scheme. Design is taken to include appearance composition, proportion, structure, function and economy of product, but in addition the architect performs the function of obtaining planning permission for the scheme. In most times, too, the architect supervises and organizes the entire construction process, starting with consulting with the client and ending with commissioning. As an established practice, the architect plays the leading role in the construction process. He or she collects, coordinates, controls and disseminates project information to all project participants. As a project team leader, the architect performs various functions in all stages of construction process, which includes: Ascertaining, interpreting and formulating the clients requirement into an understandable project brief. Designing a building to meet the clients requirement and constraints imposed by such factors as statutory obligations, technical feasibility, environmental standards, site conditions and cost. Bringing together a team of construction professionals such as the quantity surveyor, structural engineer and service engineer to give expert guidance on specific points of the clients construction project. Assessing clients cost limit and timescale, and specifying the type and grade of materials/components for use on the construction project. Preparing production information for pricing and construction and inviting tenders from building contractors. Supervising the construction on sire, constantly keeping client informed of the projects progress and issuing production instructions as and when required. Keeping the client informed of the status of the projects cost and advising ion when payment should be made or withheld. Advising on the conduct of the project generally and resolving all contractual disputes between client and the building contractor. Issuing the certificate of completion, the certificate of making good defects and the final certificate for payment. Generally, the architect acts as an agent for all purposes relating to designing, obtaining tenders for and superintending the construction work for whish he or she has been commissioned. To be able to perform above function efficiently, the architect must process, among other things, the attributes of foresight, an understanding of construction materials, communicating and coordinating abilities, essential design skills and an ability to design within a set budget. B2. Engineers B2a. The Structural Engineer The structural engineer acts as an advisor to the architect on all structural problems such as stability of the structure, suitability of materials proposed, structural feasibility of the proposed design and sizes of structural members for a construction project. Normally, the structural design engineer submits his/her various structural calculations to the area local authority for approval at the same time as the architect submits his/her drawings for building regulations approval. In addition, the structural engineer performs structural design and supervises his or her specialist area of the construction project during production on site. B2b. The Services Engineers Like the structural engineer, the services engineers (plumbing, electrical, heating and ventilating, air conditioning, sanitation, lifts and escalators and so on) contribute to the building design process to ensure that thermal and visual comfort are achieved effectively. For this reason, they analyze the clients requirement and priorities and advise the architect on the most appropriate design solution. They prepare diagrams of their proposals or services layout of the proposed construction project on the separate drawings and the architect includes these in the tender drawings sent out to contractors for competitive bidding. Once the services engineers have made their contributions to the design, they ensure that their contributions have been correctly interpreted, installed and commissioned. Where services engineers design layout causes any structural problems, the advice of the structural engineer is sought. There is also a need for the architect to coordinate the route of pipes, cables and ducts for various services on the project. The duties and responsibilities of the structural and services engineer include the following: Providing specialist advice and assisting in the design of the construction project within the scope of their respective specialist field. Producing calculations or other relevant data to assist in the design, cost planning, and the assessment of suitability of materials/components and the like. Supervising their respective specialist fields of the project and modifying or redesigning work whenever required. B3. The Quantity Surveyor The quantity surveyor is responsible for the study of the economies and financial implications of a construction project and, hence, he or she would be the appropriate construction professional to advise client/architect on matters relating to the economies and cost of a proposed construction project. Traditionally, quantity surveyors organize themselves into small practices; however, many are now to be found in contracting and client organizations. Those in private practice are mostly chosen and appointed by clients on the recommendation of an architect. As cost is one of the deciding factors in most construction projects, the quantity surveyor is brought in at the earliest opportunity to advise the client or architect on the cost of various schemes proposed. The quantity surveyor is also able to perform several functions on construction projects, and these may be summarized as follows: Preparation of preliminary cost advice and approximate estimating. Preparation of cost plan and carrying out cost studies (investment appraisal, life cycle costing and the like). Preparation of contract documentation for contractor selection and construction project administration. Evaluation of contractors tenders received with documentations for acceptance or rejection. Preparation of cash flow forecasts and institution of post-contract cost monitoring/reporting mechanisms. Valuation of variations that arise as the works proceed and preparation of interim valuations at regular intervals. Preparation of periodic cost report for the architect or client. Preparation and agreement of final account with the contractor. Evaluation and settlement of contractors claim for direct loss and/or expenses. Settlement of contractual disputes. C. The contractor The production aspects of construction projects are undertaken by building contractors who are essentially commercial companies that contract to construct development projects. Although many major contracting establishments are able to undertake both design and production work, their primary function is to build and to organize their considerable resources basically as a manufacturing organization. Duties and responsibilities of the contractor commence upon invitation to tender and include the following: Carrying out a full site investigation prior to submission of tender to ensure that the bid includes all the cost of contractual risks and problems. Submitting priced bills of quantities for examination and/or correction of any errors when required by the architect. Planning and programming the works and reprogramming thereafter whenever unforeseen events frustrate the program. Controlling directly employed operatives, sub-contractors, suppliers, materials and plant for the execution of the project to programme and cost. Coordinating efforts of all operatives and ensuring that the completed works comply with the contract specification and are also to the satisfaction of the architect. Notifying the architect of information requirements, delays to the construction programme, discrepancy between contract documents, direct loss and/or expense sustained and so on. Paying the wages of directly employed operatives, sub-contractors and suppliers in time to avoid conflicts over payment. Supplying all the information required by the clients professional advisers for the proper administration of the works. Taking steps to carry out the contractors obligations to rectify all defects on completion of the works. Providing post-occupancy repair and maintenance service if so required by the client.

Trapped in the Middle :: Essays Papers

Trapped in the Middle The middle. When one thinks of the middle, he or she may think about the middle of a street, a class, or the middle of the country. One may also consider the middle of thought, traffic, or of an argument. After asking more than ten people what they thought of what the middle was, none of them ever mentioned the middle of two cultures or traditions. In the essay, The Homeland, written by Gloria Anzaldua, Anzaldua describes her homeland as being a little of both Mexican and American cultures. She talks about the history of Mexico and how the borders between Mexico and the United States were created. She explains how the creation of the border has dramatically changed the lives of the Mexican people. She describes the border by using many metaphorical devices; one such example is that of the ocean, â€Å"where earth touches ocean, where the two overlap; a gentle coming together, and at other times and places a violent clash† (Anzaldua, 319). Anzaldua is very rea listic and descriptive in her text. She uses many forms of writing in her personal narrative, which creates an eye-opening and touching story. She concludes her essay with giving the reader a metaphor of what her homeland is to her, a â€Å"thin edge of barbed wire† (327). Anzaldua explains how she is stuck in the middle of two cultures due to a variety of reasons. Those reasons include, the fact that she struggles knowing that the Mexicans must depend on the Americans to live; yet the Americans are too ignorant to even know what is going on. Moreover, the fact that she lives in America yet her heart and soul lie in the Mexican culture causes her to feel split between the two traditions. I, too, feel for Anzaldua, yet I am Portuguese and not Mexican. Though I do not relate completely with her, I do in many ways. After reading The Homeland, I was opened up to a new story about another culture and at the same time it opened myself up to new ideas about my own. After reading Andaldua’s The Homeland, I was shocked to see myself realize that much of the information that she presented had already been exposed to me, yet I never bothered to look at both perspectives.

Becton Dickinson: World Wide Blood Collection Team Essay

Problem Identification Becton Dickinson a manufacturing company, with operations worldwide, and revenues of over $2.7 billion was founded in 1897, and had ten core businesses organized into two product sectors: medical and diagnostic. Mainly US domestic operation was beginning to give way to expanding international sales, warranting a separate division in Europe. By 1970s, the company was organized by business divisions centered in US and focusing on the largely domestic US market, and an International sector. Since most revenues were earned from the domestic market, priority tended to be domestic, which frustrated managers in foreign countries who wanted to focus more on the resources on their local market. Going international, better said, transnational was the beginning of an evolving problem that Becton Dickinson would face in the upcoming years. Causes of Problem Becton Dickinson and Company (BD) was a supplier of medical products and diagnostic systems to healthcare professionals, the medical industry, hospitals and the general public which included mostly medical gloves, hypodermic needles and intravenous catheters in the medical sector. Blood collection devices, automated systems to detect and identify bacteria and blood cell analysis systems were one of the few diagnostic products that Becton Dickinson produced. During the 1970s BD’s managers did not really take the international market as serious as they should do. Orders were only processed, when the domestic ones were filled out and completed. Furthermore, the managers’ refusals to accept and consider new product requests from abroad were a big threat to the company. In 1980, BD’s senior executives decided to take attempts to develop products and strategic ways to meet the worldwide demands of marketing needs for medical technologies. The competition did not sleep and started expanding into Europe, which began to be another threat to Becton Dickinson not only for the international sector, but also for the US market. Realizing this, BD started to build European Strategic Business Units (SBUs) that reported to the headquarters in the US. Growing concerns about emphasis given to international sales,  especially with European managers voices becoming loud, concerns led to a study senior management’s readiness to consider a new structure of BD’s worldwide activities. A consulting firm offered two structural solutions: â€Å"The Worldwide Product Division† and â€Å"Europe as an Equal Partner†, which was appealing as a way to ensure greater dedication of resources to Europe, but also threatening to duplicate efforts and costs, with the danger of different strategies slowly emerging in each division. After meeting with Harvard professor Christopher Bartlett and his colleague Sumantra Ghoshal â€Å"The Transnational Solution† was born in cooperation with the senior managers. The solution has three faces to it. The first was the challenge faced by MNCs to simultaneously achieve global efficiency, local responsiveness and worldwide innovation. The second was that these objectives needed an environment of international differentiation and asymmetry. Thirdly, they advised firms not to merely change formal reporting lines, but to focus on underlying cultures and values. A typical chain reaction was, that these circumstances affected how Becton Dickinson faced a challenge in implementing a structure that would overcome challenges posed by the growth of business outside of USA. Lack of clear vision and goals by previous management, a lack of clear articulation of the same to second line management and other employees down the chain of command are just some of the few problems that BD had to solve. Alternatives Changes to the existing organizational structure. A change to the existing structure is urgently needed, so that there’s a shift from a corporate mentality to an organization driven by Strategic Planning. This would include meeting the need for a global collaboration and local flexibility that they so badly needed as a fast growing multinational company. Managers and company itself were not prepared, which the case showed, and the lack of anticipation for the need of a suitable structure for a growing company then led to the issue, of quick fixes. This means that whenever managers in other parts of the world were discontent, only then did top management in the US would start to respond and make quick fixes to structural issues.  Cooperation and commitment between top management, middle management and employees is another important part of the change. With no cooperation, and divisions going in different direction the company soon showed signs of urgent need for structural re-designing. Disadvantages to this re-designing could result in a complete departure from the existing task based matrix structure, while others wanted to retain the structure but with minimum changes. This could as well lead to dissatisfaction within the managers and even employees. Secondly, another problem to restructuring is how well conflicts are managed or avoided all together as the company continues to have more divisions out of its central control. Open Research and Development plants in Europe and Japan. With the more and more growing market in these two sectors, Becton and Dickinson should focus on creating R&D centers within these areas and not only in the US with organizations in non-US divisions. Kozy’s thoughts about the future should also include that the European sector is an immensely fast growing one. Within seven years the net trade sales increased by over a $100 million, whereas the US sector increased by â€Å"only† $80 million. Looking at the numbers, you can see that Europe is on the move. A Research and Development center in England, for example, would help to produce local needs and act faster than going through the whole process of talks with US R&D departments and the European R&D organizations. Knowing that with Dufresne BD has a â€Å"champion† on its boat, he should be able to set up his own team of researchers, build a real Development center and take some things in his, better said, the European division’s hand. Japan not to exclude, which has also rising numbers and different marketing needs would also profit from an own R&D plant. Different needs require different solutions, therefore having the US as the only R&D plant, will not help the company nor its divisions. Even with regional R&D managers, like Dufresne, and R&D organizations outside the US, he still does not have team to work and interact with on a day-to-day basis. This would also help to accelerate new product development and quality standards, while maintaining the current distribution systems Budget restrains are a major disadvantage in BD’s case. Total expenses are high in Europe and the numbers jumped in the years from 1985 – 1992 from ca. $10,000 to a high $31,000. The plant would not only bring extra costs, but land had to be bought, people would have to be hired, and machines would have to be purchased. Another negative aspect looking at a plant in Europe or Japan would be the loss of power that the US headquarters and R&D currently have. Becton Dickinson’s US division still wants to have a certain power over its foreign ones. Therefore giving up the R&D department to a certain extent would not be everyone’s favorite in the senior management’s committee. Give Europe and Japan divisions more operating power. As for now, BD’s European and Japanese divisions are quite under the control over the â€Å"parental† guidance and supervision of the US division. The evolution from this classic structure to a new transnational company is a very important part in the future of Becton Dickinson. Even with the introduction of World Blood Collection Team (WBCT), I think that a division in itself should have more power in deciding which products to introduce, which marketing steps should be taken, etc. In the early 80’s the Japan division suffered from not being heard upon on what is need in this division. BD lost small market share in that time. The WBCT illustrated in Exhibit 8(p. 385) illustrates the Strategic, the Operations and the Marketing Team within the whole company including the whole World Blood Collection Team. In my eyes, a smaller group separated in regional divisions would help the success of the company. For example, they could combine the President BC Europe, the Director Manufacturing Europe and the Director of Marketing Europe in one group to run the regional division Europe. They would then have the power to decide which steps should be taken, what to manufacture and how and where to do the marketing. The negative aspect of this approach is that this might leave the path that WBCT and BD in general have taken up until now and again this alternative might run into problems and dissatisfaction with the headquarters. It could also lead to complete separation of the diverse division from the headquarters mission and plans on where the company wants to go. Best Alternative Looking at Becton Dickinson’s past and the way they used to business, the best alternative would be the first one mentioned of the three. Changes to the existing organizational structure, which is also part of the third alternative, would be affecting the outcome the most. The way the company will be working, how the employees will be situated within the company and most importantly how the whole company will be structured, not just domestically, but in the transnational field, is what makes them more competitive. Implementation Steps It would appear that the phenomenal growth of the business was an ambition in the managers’ plans, but they did not make any efforts to construct a structure that would suit for a company whose operations were growing with big leaps. However, there is need to make some changes to the existing structure, so that there’s a shift from a corporate mentality to an organization driven by Strategic Planning. In order to create organizational learning, top management has to create a sense of shared purpose and belonging for all divisions and individuals in the company. There is no better way to do it than to implement an organizational structure that allows and pushes free flow of information from division to division, and back to corporate headquarters without a feeling of restrictive set-ups. The main task of the top management is to shape behaviors of people and create an environment that enables them to take initiative and be more and more cooperative. Another important step is to restructure systems to reflect a willingness to accommodate different geographical and product needs. The old system was structured to suit an operation around the US, and was only slightly changed to accommodate European operations, which were still not considered equal by the US headquarters. Now with sales and operations fully developed outside of the US, it is wise to decentralize some decision-making centers so as to  allow for innovation, local responsiveness and flexibility.

Review Of Dr. Mcdreamy Stealing The Spotlight On Public...

From Greys Anatomy’s, Dr.McDreamy stealing the spotlight in every surgery to Meet the Parents, Ben Stiller starring a male nurse, there are so many negative remarks coming from movies and TV shows. In â€Å"The Negative Images of Nursing portrayed on Greys Anatomy, House and ER and its Effects on Public Perception and the Contemporary Nursing Shortage† Jacquelyn Bishop expresses a claim using illustration, cause and effect, and process analysis, of how in many shows there is a display of an unfortunate view to Nurses, such as making awful remarks towards male nurses, giving the audience the belief that nurses are a background prop behind the heroic Physician, and lastly how medical procedures are fulfilled and dealt with. Bishop uses movies and†¦show more content†¦In Meet the Parents starring Ben Stiller plays a role as a nurse, Ben walks into the kitchen and is meets the family of his girlfriend, Pam. Pam introduces her sister’s fiancà ©, who is an M. D, and his father who is a Plastic Surgeon. When Ben tells them he is in nursing, they start laughing and say, â€Å"No, really what do you do?† They continue to ask him why he did not go for being a doctor instead of staying a nurse. He replies, â€Å"Nursing was just a better fit for me.† In many movies, the male nurse is made fun of simply because nursing is for women and being a Doctor is for men. Many men fight the stereotype, as being known as a gay-male-nurse. Many have believed that men should take the one extra step and become a Doctor, simply because it is manlier. Statistics have shown 9.6% of nurses are males, and that number continues to grow every year (USA Today). We could have the most outstanding, most caring, skilled, male nurses in the world, but most will not come forward, the reason being they do not want to be terrorized, since they settled at being just a nurse and nothing more. In the article one male nurse, Ryan McFarland claims, â€Å"This jo b is manly, simply because you must have the stomach for it; you must be able to handle moving residents from one bed to another, helping using bedpans, wrapping bandages and so much more. (USA Today). Bishop claims that this job is not just for the women who have caring hearts but as well as for the men in this

American Ideology By Benjamin Franklin - 1084 Words

Ever since settlers arrived in America, American ideology began to form and has expanded since. American ideology simply cannot be described in a mere few words, but in Benjamin Franklin’s â€Å"Information to Those Who Would Remove to America† and Washington Irving’s â€Å"Rip Van Winkle† utility plays a part and impacts the building up of American ideology by not only forming the basis for success in the colonies, but even in the present day. In Benjamin Franklin’s â€Å"Information to Those Who Would Remove to America,† Franklin introduces the idea of utility in American ideology. Franklin describes this when he describes the qualities needed to thrive in America: â€Å"Most people cultivate their own lands or follow some handicraft or merchandise† (Franklin ##). Franklin says that if a person wants to come to America, he or she have the will to work. Franklin also reinforces the ideology of utility when he describes America: â€Å"American is the land of labor† (Franklin ). 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Types And Forms Of Communication Essay - 1784 Words

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The History and Structure free essay sample

Explain the key historical developments in the travel and tourism sector. You should provide a concise outline of key developments from the pilgrimages to the current day and conclude with future developments. You need to refer to the growth of the package holiday as a key development and explain its current position within the sector. With use of industry examples explain the structure of the travel and tourism sector including the concepts of chain of distribution and the roles of the sectors: government organisations, transport, accommodation, tour operators, travel agents and visitor attractions. You should explain the meaning of horizontal and vertical integration and how this has affected the industry structure. Provide an explanation of Leipers’ tourist system and explain the difference between public, private and voluntary sectors. The definition of tourism is a journey and stay in an area different to that of where one lives and works. If someone owns a holiday property or moves to work in the area on a paid or voluntary basis, this cannot be referred to as tourism. Tourism began in Roman times; with holidays to the seaside and spa areas dating back as early as 1300BC. During this time, wealthy and educated members of society set off to explore other cultures and visit the ancient world’s wonders. Popular places of interest to visit were the Acropolis in Athens and the Pyramids in Egypt. Part of the reason for tourism being introduced was the fact that the first Roman Emperor Augustus had rid the Mediterranean of pirates, thus making travel safe. Some tours taken could have had duration of two to five years. This is comparable to the Grand Tour of the 18th and 19th century when well-educated and wealthy people considered this as part of their education to go. This was a British invention and generally the privilege of young upper class gentlemen, which by the late 19th century became an American phenomenon. As opportunities for travel became more common-place travel to places in search of spiritual satisfaction became popular, thus the increasing popularity of pilgrimage travel. Pilgrimage travel destinations vary greatly in accordance to individual’s religious beliefs. Using the Christian religion as an example, there is an interest to visit sites connected to the birth, life, crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Members of the Roman Catholic denomination have travelled to Lourdes in large numbers since 1858 when reported sightings of ‘Virgin Mary’ took place perceiving destination to be ‘a place of pilgrimage and miraculous healings’ Nowadays Lourdes attract 5 000 000 pilgrim tourists each year. (Wikipedia). A good description of the tourism system is one described by Lepier in his basic tourism system where he identified three geographical regions:- * Traveller generating regions * Transit destination regions * Transit route regions â€Å"(Leiper 1995). A closer look at the three geographical regions shows that the traveller generating region is the places, or market, that the tourists and tourism is coming from, it can provide the push factors that motivate people to travel. It is from the region, people will research information on the destinations, make the booking and depart. The tourist destination area is where the tourist is a tourist, this is where the tourism takes place, it is at the destination that the managers put their plans and strategies into effect. The pull factor of the destination, which varies from place to place, is what creates the demand for the travellers to that region. The transit route region is all the places visited on the way as well as going from A- the traveller-generating region to B- the tourist destination region. (Cooper et al 1993). This goes to show that without one part of the system, the whole system would not work. The 1940’s brought about the introduction of annual leave entitlement. By 1974,the law stated that workers were entitled to four week’s annual leave. This led to more leisure time being available and people looking to use this time to travel. Along with this came the standard five day working week, giving people even more leisure time. Between 1989 and 1994 in Britain, more than half of all men (two-thirds of those in professional occupations) and a third of women retired before the state pension age of 65. Of these around ten per cent , 14 per cent were either voluntary or involuntary early retirement instigated by the employer, and around 30 percent were on health grounds. Evidence that is more recent suggests that only 37 per cent of British men are still working at the were at the normal retirement age of 64 compared with 57 per cent as recently as 1979. In each successive generation the tendency has been for retirement to take place at an earlier and earlier age, and those not yet retired often hope to be able to do so in their 50s . (source:http://www. bis. gov. uk/files/file11528. pdf). This along with the fact that people are living longer all play a part in the growth of tourism. Other factors were when women started to enter the workforce during the second world war as the mend who traditionally held factory and labour jobs went to fight in the war. Gradually women in the workplace became common-place, leading to two wage- earner families. Due to woman looking on careers as an important part of their life, couples began having less children leading to more disposable income. The development of the package holiday market began back in the 1850’s . Thomas Cook a 32-year old cabinet-maker from Leicester began offering tours of Scotland at a much more affordable rate. His motivation was the belief that Victorian social problems were related to alcohol and people’s lives could be greatly enhanced if they replaced alcohol with education. Cook expanded and organised trips throughout the UK. He gave the travellers a booklet of information, a forerunner for the modern day holiday brochure produced by Tour Operators. The success of these led to Cook opening up opportunities for middles classes to travel to various parts of the world by the 1870’s . The success of Thomas Cook has continued to the present day and they represent an excellent example of how vertical and horizontal integration benefit a growing company. Horizontal Integration occurs when an organisation buys another company on the same level in the chain of distribution. Vertical integration is when an organisation buys a company at a different level on the chain of distribution. Diagram illustrated below:- Source: http://www. hotelmule. com/forum/viewthread. php? tid=1076 (accessed 09/12/11) Horizontal and vertical integration have changed the structure of the travel industry dramatically. Integration has a positive and negative impact on the industry. When a tour operator is integrated with a travel agent, this gives the tour operator control over what the travel agency sells, therefore ensuring their own products are given priority. This can have a negative impact on the independent agent as the tour operator controls the commission levels payable and will aim to make their own agency more competitive to the consumer in an attempt to increase their market share. To combat this, several independents have turned to niche markets to survive. Horizontal integration gives the ‘multiple’ agencies such as Thomas Cook an even greater advantage as they gained more control of the retail market by buying other travel agency chains such as ‘Going Places’ and Co-op Travel’. Airlines have integrated over the years in order to gain control of the market. Sometimes in the interest of the consumer, governing bodies do not permit this to go ahead. An example is when British Airways wanted to merge with American Airlines. The governing body IATA declined their proposal as this would have enabled them to dominate the pricing of transatlantic flights from the UK. The sectors making up the structure of the travel and tourism sector include government organisation, transport, accommodation, tour operators and visitor attraction. Their roles are:- 1. Government organisations: â€Å"UNWTO plays a central and decisive role in promoting the development of responsible. The transport sector is made up of the following:- Airport and port authorities Airports and port authorities are not only in existence to make a profit, but they have very serious responsibilities to society. In the words of Sir Michael Bishop, chairman of BMI stated â€Å"Transport is the backbone of a sustainable economy; it brings people together, facilitates trade and sustains tourism†. Running an airport is a complex, lucrative operation. An airport provides products and services to various groups of people and businesses: ? Airlines are provided with the infrastructure and services to operate their flights ? Customers are provided with facilities, such as restaurants, toilets and shops ? Other businesses get a location in which to operate their business, for example car hire. Airports can be part of the private or public sector, for example BAA, who own six airports including Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted was bought by an international consortium in June 2006 and subsequently delisted from the London Stock Exchange in August of the same year; whereas Manchester airport is public sector, being owned by the City of Manchester and none other Greater Manchester councils. The ideal view of privatisation is that it enhances individual freedoms, encourages and improves efficiency, makes industry more responsive to the demands of the customer, decreases the public debt, and reduces the potential stranglehold of trade unions by forcing management to face the realities of the market place. Vickers and Yarrow (1989) report that in an investigation of the relative performance of private and public enterprises, the evidence does not clearly establish the clear-cut superiority of private ownership with respect to cost efficiency. They do make the point, however, that privately owned firms tend, on average, to have lower costs (more internal efficiency) when competition in product markets is effective. Port authorities The main role of port authorities is to provide a service to ships and cargo. With the increase in activity in this sector along with the cruise sector growth, ports have become a good location for value-added services which have evolved from customer needs and demands. The UKs leading ports group, Associated British Ports (ABP) owns and operates 21 ports in England, Scotland, and Wales, and handles approximately a quarter of the countrys seaborne trade. One of the ports owned by this private sector company is Southampton whose success has been greatly increased by the increase in cruising options available due to its unique double-tide and deep-water. . The Port of Southampton is the cruise capital of the UK, serving more than one million passengers each year. Southampton boasts the finest cruise passenger facilities from dedicated terminals through to extensive car parking, and including the opportunity to arrive from door-to-port by rail. Airlines None of the airlines in the UK are government owned, but some are owned by their shareholders and are therefore Public Limited companies such as British Airways. Airlines can be broken down into the following sectors:- 1. Scheduled These run on a regular timetable which is updated twice a year to produce a winter and summer schedule. An example of a scheduled airline is British Airways. Depending on the aircraft type and routing, scheduled airlines will offer different classes of travel such as economy, business and first class in order to meet the needs of all prospective customers. All scheduled airlines will give a free baggage allowance and most will offer a full inflight service of complimentary beverages, meals and in-flight entertainment (depending on length of flight) 2. Low Cost The introduction on ‘low cost’ or ‘no frills’ offered a significant change to the industry where passengers can be offered a low fare but will be charged for extras such as baggage, seat allocation in-flight services. They work on a system of ‘yield management’ which means that prices are constantly monitored and prices adjusted accordingly, therefore in high season, or other periods of high demand fares can be more expensive than traditional airlines. These airlines operate their timetables in the same way as scheduled airlines. Examples of low cost airlines are Easyjet and Ryanair. Since seeing the success in this sector some traditional airlines have formed low-cost airlines such as BMI who formed Bmibaby in 2002. 3. Charter Tour operators contract (charter) an aircraft for specific holiday seasons or day-trips. The services on-board chartered aircraft vary greatly depending on the airline the company has chartered. Once the tour operator has committed to the chartering of an aircraft for a period then they are committed. This can lead to reduced prices of package holiday’s off-season or if a flight is not fully booked. Some tour operators are integrated with airlines. Major tour operator ‘Thomas cook ‘are horizontally integrated with ‘Thomas Cook Airlines and will therefore use their own aircraft first when arranging chartering services for their holiday programme. Charter airlines are constantly changing their pricing structure and whilst some will include an in-flight meal and luggage allowance like scheduled airlines do, others have followed suit with low cost airlines begun to charge the customer for all ancillaries. Cruise and shipping companies The cruise sector has been the fast growing sector in the travel and tourism industry over the past ten years due to increase in demand and the creation of new cruise ships. Whilst niche markets still exist in this sector, many companies have expanded their portfolio to reach new markets such as families and young people rather than the older groups who were the traditional cruisers. Companies have also targeted the market of those who do not want a fly-cruise and wish to avoid flying altogether, hence the success and development of Southampton port. River cruises are another popular and increasing market, who offer cruising on rivers such as the Danube, Rhine and Nile. The rivers sector is now the fastest-growing part of the UK cruise market with 8 per cent growth in 2010 to 134,000 passengers. The PSA (Passenger Shipping Association) stated in the leading trade journal TTG that â€Å"Cruise holidays grew by 6% in 2010 despite the total number of foreign holidays continuing to decline, new figures from the Passenger Shipping Association revealed today. The independent body’s 2010 Cruise Review showed that cruising accounted for a 4. 5% share of all the 36. 1 million foreign holidays taken last year and 11. 5% of the package holiday market of 14 million†. Coach Companies Approximately nine million people take coach tours each year. Coach tourism contributes ? 2.5 billion to the UK economy. Coach companies have adapted their products to meet customer’s ever-changing needs and demands. There is an increasing demand for day excursions, short breaks and holidays by coach which companies need to respond to. Companies also offer fly/coach holidays where customers have the benefit of touring areas of interest such as California. In response to this , major coach companies have excellent working relationships with airlines, ferry companies and accommodation providers. A few companies have integrated with tour operators to give better control of the market. An example is ‘Tourama’ who are now owned by the tour operator ‘Cosmos’. Railways There are 24 train companies that serve the length and breadth of the UK. The national rail network in the UK is owned by ‘Network rail’, whose role is to maintain the infrastructure and when necessary renew the tracks. There are also Train Operating Companies, known as TOC’s who lease trains from rolling stock companies. The Strategic Rail Authority issues issue the franchises and monitor the train operating companies to ensure rail passengers are protected. Examples of TOC’s Virgin Trains and Central Trains. These are commercial profit-making companies who do not receive any government funding. Transport for London (TFL) are responsible for the running of the London Underground and Docklands Light railway . They operate a driverless system and aim to create an additional 4 million daily journeys by 2025. Their sophisticated computerised system is closely managed 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. A massive breakthrough in rail travel was the introduction of Eurostar in1993, the passenger train service for the channel tunnel operating from London to Paris, Lille and Brussels. They are public sector and owned by London and Continental Railways. Car Rental Companies Major car hire companies such as Hertz and Avis operate internally and have representation at international airports and work in conjunction with airlines to offer travellers exclusive deals. They also offer online and telephone pre-booking service and have met demands of customers by offering a wide range of vehicles, including comprehensive insurance and offering pick off and drop off in airport and downtown locations, including one way rentals. Reservations and sales staff Reservations and sales staff play a key role in the success of the travel and tourism industry. Whilst opportunities increase for the customer to book directly online, many consumers prefer to deal with people either face to face or by telephone. The quality of the staff reflects directly in the success of the company. The role of reservations and sales staff is to give advice and correct information, sell and administer bookings. The influence of local and national governments and international agencies on the travel and tourism sector Task 2 – LO2: For the country i live in provide an analysis of the function of different levels of government. In your answer you need to discuss the range of government national and international agencies, and government sponsored bodies and their main roles. Local and national economic policy can influence the success of the sector, provide examples how this is done using an area you or familiar with or have researched. VisitBritain formed in 1993 and are the national tourism agency who are responsible for marketing Britain worldwide. They are non-departmental public body who are funded by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Although they primarily market Great Britain as opposed to the whole of the UK, Visit Britain work with the Northern Ireland Tourist Board and assist in the marketing of NI as a tourist destination. The public sector plays a significant role in tourism and has traditionally provided funding, staff resources and the organisational capacity to create and manage campaigns on behalf of the whole sector. For many years this was restricted primarily to local authorities typically in those areas of the country with a well-established tradition of hosting visitors and and a network of Regional Tourist Boards which were established through the Development of Tourism Act (1969). Following the creation of the Northern Ireland Assembly in 1998, it was agreed that the promotion of tourism should be an area of co-operation. At this point a new publically owned company was established by the two governments in Ireland to promote increased tourism to the island of Ireland as a whole, working closely with Bord Failte. The Northern Ireland Tourist Board is currently receives ? 13. 88 million annually in government funding. (  Source:http://www. publications. parliament. uk/pa/cm200001/cmselect/cmcumeds/430/1042614. htm) Current Responsibilities for Tourism Development in Northern Ireland:- Department of Enterprise, Trade and Investment (DETI) Lead Government Department for tourism in Northern Ireland. Responsibilities include: †¢ Development of tourism policy (including targets and priorities); †¢ Bringing forward, and amending, enabling tourism legislation; †¢ Securing funding for tourism; Tourism Ireland Responsible for the overseas promotion of the island of Ireland as a tourism destination and supports Northern Ireland to realise its tourism potential. Invest Northern Ireland Responsible for tourism accommodation grants and business support to the tourism sector for ‘client companies’. LOCAL TOURISM DELIVERY Local Councils Take the lead on tourism strategy and development within their council boundaries. This includes: †¢ local marketing, †¢ local product development; and †¢ local infrastructure development and enhancement. Regional Tourism Partnerships and Other Bodies Co-ordinate some of the marketing and product development efforts on behalf of various local Councils and the private sector. Private Sector Provision of all those facilities and services essential to tourism eg accommodation, things to see and do, standards of service etc. Belfast is the capital of Northern Ireland and to assist in marketing it as a major and leisure and business destination, the Belfast Visitor and Convention Bureau was established in 1999. to promote Belfast as a major leisure and business tourism destination. The Bureau works in partnership with the industry in promoting the city, and currently represents over 300 businesses in the Greater Belfast area. The implications of political change Task 3 LO2:- Using the area you live, and the UK, and a country of your choice explain the implications of political change on the travel and tourism industry. Consider the reasons for government involvement in travel and tourism, the influence of government and how the industry has been impacted by a political change eg change in political party, or a change in the level of stability. This report will investigate Northern Ireland, the UK and Mexico, explaining implications political change had on the travel and tourism industry. Northern Ireland How political change in Northern Ireland affected the tourism of the country has been extraordinary. Since the ceasefire in 1994, fear of visiting the province has decreased and there has been a steady growth of interest in Northern Ireland as a tourist destination. Despite scepticism, especially from the unionist party members, this was a significant breakthrough. In 1998, there was another major political development in the Northern Ireland peace process, namely the ‘Good Friday’ agreement. This set out provisions relating to areas such as the relationship between Northern Ireland and institutions in the Republic of Ireland and United Kingdom; human rights; respecting each other’s traditions within their communities; the decommissioning of arms by paramilitary groups; release from prison of political prisoners and changes in British security arrangements in Northern Ireland. Tourism has continued to grow at a steady pace and the predicted spin off of the MTV Europe Awards which Belfast hosted in November 2011 combined with the planned events marking the centenary of the Titanic disaster predict to put Northern Ireland on the global tourism map. Northern Ireland has high ambitions since it’s transformation and aim to ensure the next ten years create even more tourism that the past ten years. Their tourism strategy compiled by NITB states that they aim to double tourism figures. This is an amazing achievement as progress of tourist numbers was very slow in the years preceding 1994 and Northern Ireland was thought of as an unsafe place to travel to as opposed to a holiday destination. The table below demonstrates how poor tourism figures were pre 1994 and how this increased rapidly from 1994 onwards. Source: UK Occupancy Study / Failte Ireland The growth in tourism has been assisted by the improvement of accessibility to Northern Ireland with the introduction of low cost airlines and new routes being added. Various other factors have affected tourism in Northern Ireland in a positive way. In 2009, there was a 30% increase in the number of tourists from the Republic of Ireland . This was due to residents of ROI feeling safer and not under threat and also the fact that value for money was better due to ROI being in the Eurozone and cost of living soaring. Also the multi-million pound road improvements on the main N1 motorway completed in 2007 made travel from South to North very comfortable and easy. Previously, ROI residents may have feared travelling north as they would have been easily recognised by their accent and car registration number which may have led to them being targeted and harmed by extremists. This development was welcomed and changed the tourism mix due to a fall in numbers from international and Great Britain markets – this being due to the international global economic crisis. Government must work in conjunction with the tourist board to ensure potential tourist feel safe and welcomed when visiting the country. Quality of life in Northern Ireland is being enjoyed at a much higher level than the dark days before any significant tourism existed with the social skills being developed of those working in the hospitality industry conversing with different cultures and the creation of extra jobs in the sector. United Kingdom Leading market research company ‘BCC Research’ recently stated â€Å"the sharp decline in tourism cannot be wholly attributed to recessionary factors, rather the lack of heavyweight support given to the tourism industry within government† and â€Å"poor decision making and allocation of resources†. The current recession is a result of financial mismanagement on behalf of the British government. As the economy was booming and there was plenty of money in circulation, the government responded by lowering interest rates instead of raising rates to control inflation. This led to the newly appointed government introducing massive cuts and the marketing budget for ‘Visit Britain’ being cut by 18 per cent. At a time when other countries are increasing their marketing budgets and much needed tourist spend is required in the UK this strategy may lead to a downturn in tourism. With the weakening of the pound it could be argued that the UK would make an attractive choice for tourists, but this is not reflected in tourism numbers to date. Tourism is the fifth largest industry in the UK and employs 1. 4 million people directly and 1.3 million people indirectly. A recent report by ‘Deloitte’ suggested that tourism was worth 8. 2 per cent of GDP; so in the current economic climate the UK cannot to afford this, but there are fears the government are doing little to help increase tourism. MEXICO The Current government of Mexico has been waging a five year battle with drug trafficking gangs in the hope of dismantling them and creating a stable society. Combined with the drug-related violence, reports of car-jacking and theft, Mexico’s adverse publicity has led to a drop in the number of tourists from US tourists crossing the border. Surprisingly, according to Mexican government officials, tourism in general has only been marginally affected, but the most likely reason for this is major price cuts which have been applied to Mexican cruises to increase tourist numbers. Since 2006, the year that the military offensive was launched against drug cartels, government statistics report that more than 28000 people have been murdered in Mexico. Both US State Department and British Foreign Office have issued warnings concerning the violence in Mexico. The government continue their efforts to increase tourism as this is one of Mexico’s most important industries, generating 9% of their GDP. The foreign office website states the following advice on travelling to Mexico:- â€Å"Millions of foreign visitors, including approximately 300,000 British nationals, safely visit Mexico each year. This includes tens of thousands who cross the border with the US every day for study, tourism or business and at least one million foreign residents who live in Mexico. However, crime and violence are serious problems in Mexico. While most victims of violence are Mexican citizens associated with criminal activity, the security situation does pose risks for British nationals as well. The Mexican government makes efforts to protect foreign visitors to major tourist destinations. Resort areas and tourist destinations in Mexico such as Cancun, Playa del Carmen, Cozumel, Los Cabos and Puerto Vallarta have historically not seen the levels of drug-related violence and crime reported in the northern border region and in areas along major drug trafficking routes. † Source:- www. fco. gov. uk – date accessed 31 Jan 2012) The current President has taken a stand on the drug trade and it has increased the violence between the military/police and the drug distributors. It used to be that the politicians and police were all tipped off to look the other way. The situation has impacted tourism to mexico dramatically as due to apparent danger and political unrest their highest target market of tourist – USA – are not travelling to Mexico in the high numbers they previously did. Data released by â€Å"SecretarAa de Turismo† (Ministry of Tourism, Sectur) indicated that tourist arrivals continued to  fall in 2009, totalling 12. 6mn in the first seven months of the year, a fall of 6. 6% year-onyear. This will inevitably lead to Mexico’s economy suffering if these figures do not improve therefore pressure is with the government to tackle the issues and increase potential for tourism. Investigate the effects of supply and demand on the travel and tourism sector Task 4 LO3:- Explain the factors which affect tourist demand. Using the course text book (Cooper) and the ilearn to research the theory of demand explain how this applies to the travel and tourism sectors using examples. The definition of tourist demand can vary from the point of view of various groups of people. Economists base their definition of demand on specifics of price people are prepared to pay within a price range during a specified time, however psychologists will view demand from the perspective of motivation reasons and behavioural patterns. The gravity model based on Newton’s law below demonstrates forecasting the flow between markets and generations. This can be used to forecast tourism based on size of a generating market, the attractiveness of a destination and distance between them. Source: http://hotelmule. com/wiki/Gravity-model Tourist demand is affected by economic decisions such as a consumer’s disposable income and factors like responses of the market providers to adapt to the needs of the individual consumer. Taking these into consideration helps us to understand the customer decision process which is broken into four basic elements:- 1. Energisers – what motivates the consumer to go on holiday. 2. Effectors – how the consumer’s ideas have developed on a destination based on the promotion of a destination or their knowledge of it. Roles and decision making – this could involve a travelling companion, travel agent or a family member who is involved in the purchase process. 4. Determinants – this refers to all areas of consideration which a consumer uses to determine their requirements, for example income and motivational factors. Places of tourism demand are closely linked to a person’s age-group and family circumstances. Major tour operators have responded to these demands by ensuring they have a wide portfolio of products to meet individual needs. Although chronological age would appear to be the most obvious way to categorise, the fact that others travelling in the party is a major consideration. Children can have a significant influence on a parent’s decision, who may then in turn invite the grandparents to join them. A good example of how tour operators recognised this and met this demand was the offer from ‘First Choice’ of free child places and also free grandchild places for selected family properties. Principals have based their entire portfolios on demands of their targeted markets and therefore study consumer behaviour and tourist trends on a continual basis. An example is the ferry companies, Stena line and P+O Ferries who offer free student travel at beginning of term to promote their product to parents of students who may be taking their children to university by car. Major Principals will monitor school closure dates and price their holidays accordingly, which is the reason why special offers appear only to be on off-peak dates. Ski operators also hike their prices on mid-term breaks and holiday times. Demand for tourism gives airlines, hotels and tour operators the opportunity to charge inflated prices at periods when they are aware demand is high and availability is limited. Demonstrate how the industry has had to respond to changes in demandin: effects of the global recession, an ageing population, use of home computers/mobile technology, media influences. Explain how the industry has responded by changing their products/services to meet these changes in demand. Global recession The response of airlines to the global recession has been to cut back in areas such as call centres and sales managers, marketing their product cost-effectively on-line. Airlines have cut fares, even though unit costs such as in-flight catering and fuel have risen dramatically. They depend on volume of sales to make a profit. The Charter market responded to the recession by no longer offering a full service on-board flights, and began to make additional charges for ancillary services such as baggage and in-flight meals. On the other hand, countries less affected by the recession such as UAE are expanding by ordering a further 144 planes costing $48 billion. An ageing population Due to the fact that a quarter of the UK population is over 55 and this age-group is forecast to increase by 15% over the next decade, Tour Operators have responded by acknowledging this segment of the market needs to be specifically targeted. Major tour operators Thomson and Thomas Cook have both added products to their portfolio to meet these customer’s needs. ‘Forever Young’ and ‘Golden Circle’ by Thomas Cook and ‘Thomson Gold’ by Thomson take advantage of the needs of this age group in the knowledge that they generally have more disposable income and leisure time. Tour operators have taken into consideration that this age group prefer a good standard and will mainly prefer serviced accommodation and this is reflected in their products offered in their brochures. Coach tours popular with this age group now offer a superior product keeping in line with customer demands. The ever expanding cruise market operators also offer the incentive of reduced prices to the over 55’s age-group, and the operator ‘Silverseas’ market their luxury product to this age group. Use of home computers/mobile technology The use of home computers has not only given potential tourist the ability to study their chosen destination, but also to book and pay for their holiday without the need of a travel agent. Although convenient and at times cost-effective for the consumer, there is a danger that they are not financially protected in the event of company failure. All airlines and tour operators have websites, but there are an increasing number of companies operating with different websites under one parent company who offer either limited or no financial security. This can make booking on-line a risk for the consumer. The Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) was introduced by mobile manufacturers in 1997. This enabled users to browse the internet, use email and connect to specific providers eg weather, but the breakthrough in how the industry was affected with mobile technology cane with the introduction of the I-Phone. Not only can holidays and flights be booked, but airlines such as British Airways have developed an application which can be downloaded and offers on-line check-in and the downloading of boarding passes which can be scanned at the departure gate. Ten billion apps have been downloaded in the past three years. According to the local daily newspaper, Belfast Telegraph (17th February 2011)There are 17,000 travel apps on the market and 160 million app-compatible devices are owned worldwide – which are iPhones, Androids, Blackberrys and tablet devices. Airlines responded to advances in technology by realising there was no longer any demand for paper tickets and all now operate an e-ticket system. Media influences There are various ways in which television and newspaper media can influence reports on events that have taken place. Positive effects (eg South Africa who hosted the World Cup in 2010) or negative impacts (eg Thailand when the tsunami disaster hit in 2004) can influence tourist behaviour to particular areas. When choosing resorts and accommodation consumer behaviour has changed and social media due to the familiarity of sites such as ‘Facebook’ and there is a tendency to take advice from review websites like ‘Trip Advisor’. This is a new trend in society whereby consumers tend to trust opinions of unknown people who have posted opinions and may not be posting an honest or accurate review. Task six L O 4 Using destinations selected from the UK, Caribbean, Europe and Africa and evaluate and report on the main economic, environmental and social aspects of tourism and how they inter-relate. Provide an accompanying explanation to explain strategies that can be used to minimise the negative impacts of tourism whilst maximising the positive impacts. London Economic According to Wikipedia, â€Å"London is the worlds leading tourism destination, and the city is home to an array of famous tourist attractions†. London attracts 30 million international visitors per year, making it the worlds most visited in terms of international visits. The Tourist Board for London is called Visit London. The Government Office for London states that tourism revenues constitute 10 per cent of Londons GVA (gross value added) and contributes to the employment of up to 13 per cent of Londons workforce. According to the London Development Agency, visitors to London spend around ? 15bn each year. Environmental Tourism is both a contributor to, and in some locations, at risk from, environmental problems, proving the need for a sustainable tourism policy. However, in many cases these can be turned into opportunities as demonstrated in the strategies of both the BTA who work closely with ‘Visit London’. Green Tourism for London, launched by the London Development Agency in 2007 (the mayor of London’s agency responsible for sustainable tourism) and with the support of Visit London, is the new scheme for hotels, guesthouses, attractions and venues in the capital, giving incentives for hotels and attractions to ‘go green’. Many have been independently audited and accredited by the national Green Tourism Scheme Social The challenges tourism present for social equity can be turned into opportunities can be demonstrated in strategies of the BTA and ETC. The mayor of London has developed a plan which includes taking into consideration the mutual needs of the tourist and habitant of London. He has stated in his vision that â€Å"Growth of the visitor economy must therefore also be managed to create, in the long term, a city that is better for Londoners and that people will want to visit – a city that is fair, accessible, safe, supports a high quality of life and respects the need for sustainable development. † For those living in the city, he has also promised to â€Å"Provide opportunities for disadvantaged communities to acquire skills and achieve progression in the tourism sector through work-based learning opportunities, mentoring, placements and traineeships†. ‘Green Tourism for London’ holds the mission statement â€Å"To improve the quality of life for all Londoners, by working to create jobs, improve skills and promote economic growth†. Antigua and Barbuda The tourist industry in Antigua and Barbuda was among the first to be developed within the Eastern Caribbean, and is presently ranked as one of the largest in the region. The geographical position of the island makes it a strategic first stop or last landfall for both aircrafts and pleasure yachts crossing the Atlantic. Economic Tourism is Antigua’s most important productive sector, and was in 2007 estimated to account for 40 % of all employment, and 70 % of GDP. Tourism is still the largest contributor to Gross Domestic Product, despite the fact that in 2009 Antigua’s economy was severely hit by the global economic crisis. It suffered from the collapse of its largest financial institution and saw a steep decline in tourism. Positive growth returned in 2011 and tourism is on the increase again. For Antigua and Barbuda, economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in their tourist markets, which are mainly the UK, USA and other islands in the Caribbean. According to statistics printed by the Antigua Tourism authority Cruise lines supply the largest number of visitors totalling 60%. The Antigua and Barbuda Investment Authority reported that in 2007 Antigua and Barbudas tourism arrivals totalled 261,785 stay over visitors and over 500,000 cruise passengers from 440 cruise calls. Environmental In spite of the fluctuations in the actual numbers of passengers, the cruise lines still supply the largest group of visitors. Unfortunately there can be negative environmental consequences of the tourism cruise ships bring to the islands. They can leave large amounts of pollution in the ecosystem every year. Ships also dump large amounts a waste, sometimes illegally, into the Caribbean Sea to which has damaging effects to coral reefs and marine wildlife. The Caribbean had made several lawsuits towards cruise lines for ‘illegal, environmentally unsafe actions’. Cruise ship pollution is now currently being monitored and regulated by the MARPOL to ensure all waste is disposed of properly; thereby protecting the local environment. Tourism in the Caribbean had began to damage local ecosystems. The increased demand for electricity, seafood and water had caused prices for these resources to reach record high price levels and have led to Antigua being listed as â€Å"water scarce† due to the large consumptions due mainly to tourist resorts. Caribbean Action For Sustainable Tourism’ has created a plan of action for the tourism industry which contains ten important areas, waste minimization, energy efficiency, conservation and management, management of fresh water resources, waste water management, hazardous substances transport, land-use planning and management, design for sustainable tourism. The aim of the organisation is that the plan will help preserve the ecosystem, which is clearly at risk from tourism. Social The current population of Antigua is 68,000. The importance of tourism in society is crucial as the industry generates approximately 48% of All Jobs. Antigua tourism authority estimated that it requires a visitor expenditure of around 64,350 East Caribbean Dollars (approximately ? 250,000)to create a single full-time job. The government have recognised the importance of effective tourism management and have therefore implemented strategies to help the people living in Antigua to become adequately trained in all aspects of working in the tourism industry. The Ministry of Tourism has launched a tourism cadet programme that seeks to develop a cadre known as the Antigua and Barbuda Tourism Cadet Corps with a knowledge and understanding of the needs, problems and opportunities within the tourism sector and also to provide hands-on training and development within the tourism business. There is training provision in Antigua in both the public and private sector through the ABHTI(Antigua and Barbuda Hospitality Training Institute)training for all service employees, customs, immigration, taxi drivers and private sector companies are incentivised to release  employees for training. Although tourism can create a demand for western lifestyles and attitudes and threaten the local culture of these Caribbean islands , the need for tourism in order for the islands to survive is obvious, hence the government taking steps to sustain it. Some citizens may feel excluded from their own island, but in order to survive tourism must be sustained. Barcelona Economic Barcelona is one of the richest regions in Southern Europe and accounts for more than a quarter of Spain’s GDP, ten per cent of which is directly attributed to income from tourism. Barcelona enjoys booming tourism with it’s uniqueness of being a city which has a beach. It is not only a popular cruise port and a city renowned for it’s architecture, but also a gateway for many other attractions such as Portaventura theme park, Montserrat, trade exhibition facilities, sporting activities such as football and racing and accessible skiing in the winter months. Since Barcelona hosted the Olympic Games in 1992, the city has experienced steady growth in tourist numbers, while continuing to specialise and diversify its supply and demand. Taking advantage of this event, Turisme de Barcelona was set up as the result of an agreement and the close relationship between Barcelona City Council and the Barcelona Chamber of Commerce and has since developed and identified a number of programmes and actions to promote the city as a tourist destination, making Barcelona the European city that has experienced the greatest proportional growth in terms of the tourism sector. Their vision is: Barcelona will still be recognised as the most vibrant and dynamic tourist destination in the Mediterranean and one of the world’s leading destinations, and has established its position as a destination that has gone way beyond its administrative boundaries. It is a city where tourism is fully integrated into its economic, retail, social and cultural dynamic and where the community recognises all kinds of visitors as other (temporary) citizens. The hospitable character of the locals makes it a friendly, different city that people are fond of. A metropolitan city which is distinguished by its environmental sustainability, its excellent service, its continuous ability to surprise and its groundbreaking initiatives. Culture, creativity and knowledge are the engines of the city and its territory. The real city, its identity and dynamism form the basis of its appeal and there is no room for â€Å"ghettos† or neighbourhoods that cater exclusively to tourists. In order to balance the needs of tourists whilst conserving the environment, the government have introduced sustainable projects to manage the environmentally negative impacts of tourism. Projects have included making more areas in the city pedestrianised in order to reduce pollution by traffic and congestion. Also the development of cycle lanes and bus lanes encourage tourist to use more environmentally friendly modes of transport. Alongside this, walking tours are very popular and create an environmentally friendly method of sight-seeing. The environmental impact of cruising has led to the need for responsible tourism being addressed at government level with the introduction of ‘The City of Barcelona Strategic Tourism Plan’ and includes the introduction of regulations that must be adhered to by cruise lines who operate in and out of Barcelona. Social Barcelona’s status as a tourist city has led to many social adaptations which have been viewed at times as an inconvenience to the local community and can create a feeling of unease and anti-tourist sentiments. The introduction of low cost airlines has seen Barcelona become an accessible destination for sometimes unwelcome stag and hen parties. The infiltration of multi-national chains such as McDonalds and Starbucks are threatening local businesses and causing closure and changing the culture as tourists are supporting these familiar outlets instead of experiencing the authentic Spanish cafes. This has led to many locals reluctantly moving from the city centre to avoid the high numbers of tourists. Crime level with regards to pick-pocketing is high in Barcelona as thieves take advantage of the mass tourists on a daily basis. Kenya Economic Kenya’s services sector, which contributes about 63 percent of GDP, is dominated by tourism. In the late 1990s, tourism declined due to increasing violence and suffered a further downturn following the bombing of the US Embassy in Nairobi. This led to western governments advising against travel to Kenya. The government and tourist industry organisations took steps such as establishing a tourist police and launching marketing campaigns in an attempt to address the security problem and reverse negative publicity tourism saw substantial recovery over the following years and is the now Kenya’s largest foreign exchange earning sector. Kenya currently receives about 1 million tourists per year as compared to about 70,000 at the time of independence in 1973. Tourism has become one of the most vital sectors of Kenya’s economy and a major foreign exchange  earner as well as offering employment to well over 138,000 segments in direct employment and 360,000 in indirect employment. Environmental â€Å"Despite the country’s policy advocating spatial distribution of tourists in the country, tourism marketing has continued to focus on the traditional attractions, thereby perpetuating concentration. Impacts are most severe in crowded attractions – beaches have been polluted, coral reefs destroyed, marine species adversely affected and vegetation degraded. Environmental regulations are either ignored or not effectively implemented. Mitigation efforts are constrained by weak institutions, corruption, mismanagement, inadequate political and administrative capacity†. New environmental guidelines for tourism were introduced by the Minister of Tourism in Kenya in 2007. In many places in Kenya, natural systems and biological resources such as the game reserves, water resources, beaches, forests etc are threatened by tourism that was not backed by well regulated development guideline. These posed a risk to the attractions and services that are dependent for tourism to be sustainable. As a result of this environmental dependency, tourism has had adverse effects on the environment. Examples include pollution of water resources through waste disposal, trampling of vegetation and congestions in game reserves, and the pollution of beaches. Social Most forms of ecotourism are owned by foreign investors and corporations and offer very few benefits to the local communities in Kenya. The majority of the profits are not reinvested into the local economy. Residents are frustrated at the limited employment provided in these areas and the small wages paid by those that are employed. An example of the resentment of local people was the highly publicised case when Maasai nomads killed wildlife in national parks to demonstrate their disapproval at their displacement from traditional lands. This action followed communities being ordered out of their homes in order to create national parks and game reserves for the purpose of tourism. Local and national governments took advantage of the Maasai’s ignorance on the situation and robbed them of huge chunks of grazing land, putting to risk their only socio-economic livelihood. In Kenya the Maasai also have not gained any economic benefits. Despite the loss of their land, employment favours better educated workers. In some cases game reserves can be created without informing or consulting local people, who come to find out about the situation when an eviction notice is delivered (Kamuaro, 2007). Another source of resentment is the manipulation of the local people by their government. Eco-tourism works to create simplistic images of local people and their uses and understandings of their surroundings. Through the lens of these simplified images, officials direct policies and projects towards the local people and the local people are blamed if the projects fail (West, 2006). Clearly tourism as a trade is not empowering the local people who make it rich and satisfying. Instead ecotourism exploits and depletes, particularly in African Maasai tribes. It has to be reoriented if it is to be useful to local communities and to become sustainable (Kamuaro, 2007). There are many positive and negative aspects of tourism socially, environmentally and economically. Social costs may be that individual behaviour and family values may be altered as they are influenced by the behaviour of tourists, but this can also bring the positive cultural experience between hosts and tourists. Another example is the overcrowding issues brought about by tourism can have a positive effect as countries react by improving the infrastructure which can also be of great benefit to the residents. Economically, the positive impacts are the money spent by the tourists strengthening the economy. When new money is brought into the economy, tourist money is returned to the local economy and spend over and over again , creating the multiplier effect. This should outweigh the negative aspects of mass tourism, especially in a country dependent on it. Environmentally, whereby mass visitor’s footfall may be of concern to natural areas, this in turn puts economic value on unspoilt natural resources and encourages the establishment of national parks and protected areas.